Heavy legacy of the past. Windows command line issues
Preface from the author, Rich Turner from Microsoft. This is an article about the command line: from its appearance and evolution to the Windows Console overhaul plans and the command line in future versions of Windows. Whether you are an experienced professional or a newcomer to IT, we hope that you will find the article interesting.
From the first days of computer science development, people needed an efficient way to transfer commands and data to a computer and see the result of these commands / calculations.
One of the first truly effective man-machine interfaces was the Tele-Typewriter, or "TTY". This is an electromechanical machine with a keyboard for data input and some sort of output device - first a printer was used, later a screen.
Operator-entered characters are locally buffered and sent from a teletype to a neighboring computer or mainframe as a series of signals over an electrical cable (for example, RS-232) at a speed of 10 characters per second (110 baud bps):
')
Teletype Model 33 ASR
The program on the computer receives the entered characters, decides what to do with them, and, perhaps, asynchronously sends a response to the teletype. TTY can print / show operator received characters.
Then the technology improved, the transfer rate increased to 19,200 bps, and noisy and expensive printers replaced CRT displays (a widespread type of display in the 80s and 90s), as on the popular DEC VT100 terminal:
Terminal DEC VT100
Although the technology has improved, but this model - the terminal sends symbols to the program on the computer, and it gives the text to the user - has remained today as the fundamental model of the interaction of all command lines and consoles on all platforms!
Terminal and command line architecture
The model is elegant in its own way. One of the reasons is to preserve the simplicity and integrity of each component: the keyboard produces symbols that are buffered as electrical signals. The output device simply displays on the display (paper / screen) characters received from the computer.
At each stage in the system, only a stream of characters is transmitted, so this is a relatively simple process for implementing various communication infrastructures. For example, to add modems to transmit streams of input and output symbols over long distances via telephone lines.
It is important to remember that terminals and computers exchange data through streams of characters. When you press a key on the terminal keyboard, a value representing the character entered is sent to the connected computer. Press the 'A' key and the value 65 is sent (0x41). Press 'Z' and sends 90 (0x5a).
The list of characters and their meanings is defined in the American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII) standard, which is also the ISO / IEC 646 / ECMA-6 standard - “7-bit coded character set”, which defines:
Standard 7-bit ASCII characters
However, 7 bits do not provide enough space to encode many accents, punctuation marks, and symbols used in other languages and regions. So with the addition of an extra bit, you can extend the ASCII character table with additional “code page” sets for characters 128–255 (and possibly redefining several non-printable ASCII characters).
For example, IBM introduced codepage 437 with several graphic characters like ╫ (215) and ╣ (185) and mathematical symbols, including π (227) and ± (241), and also redefined printable characters for commonly non-printing characters 1−31:
Codepage 437
The Latin-1 code page defines the set of characters used by Latin-based languages:
Latin-1 code page
In many command line environments and shells, you can change the current codepage so that the terminal displays different characters (depending on the fonts available), especially for characters with a value of 128–255. But an incorrectly specified code page will lead to the display of gibbering . And yes, “krakozyabry” is the real term ! Who would have thought? ;)
Code pages have temporarily solved the problem, but they have many shortcomings, for example, they do not allow displaying text from several code pages / languages simultaneously. Thus, we had to introduce a new encoding that accurately displays each character and alphabet for all languages known to humanity, leaving a lot of free space! Introducing Unicode .
Unicode is an international standard ( ISO / IEC 10646 ), which currently defines 137,439 characters from 146 modern and historical scripts, as well as many characters and glyphs, including numerous emoticons that are widely used in almost every application, platform, and device. Unicode is regularly updated with additional writing systems, new / corrected emoticons, symbols, etc.
Unicode also defines “non-printable” formatting characters, which allow, for example, to combine characters and / or affect previous or subsequent characters! This is especially useful in writing such as Arabic, where the ligature of a particular character is determined by others. Emoji can use a zero width joiner to combine multiple characters into one visual glyph. For example, Microsoft Emoji Ninja cat is formed by connecting the cat with other Emoji:
Emoji Cat Ninja Microsoft
A unique and systematic representation of all characters requires a large amount of space, up to several bytes for each character.
Therefore, to save money, several new Unicode encodings were developed. Among the most popular are UTF-32 (4 bytes per character), UTF-16 / UCS-2 (2 bytes) and UTF-8 (1−4 bytes per character).
Largely due to backward compatibility with ASCII and saving space, UTF-8 has become the most popular Unicode encoding on the Internet. It has been showing explosive growth since 2008, when it overtook ASCII and other popular encodings in popularity:
The rise in popularity of the UTF-8 encoding (source: Wikipedia)
Thus, the terminals initially supported 7-bit and then 8-bit ANSI text, but most modern terminals support Unicode / UTF-8 text.
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Once upon a time in a distant-distant server ...
From the first days of computer science development, people needed an efficient way to transfer commands and data to a computer and see the result of these commands / calculations.
One of the first truly effective man-machine interfaces was the Tele-Typewriter, or "TTY". This is an electromechanical machine with a keyboard for data input and some sort of output device - first a printer was used, later a screen.
Operator-entered characters are locally buffered and sent from a teletype to a neighboring computer or mainframe as a series of signals over an electrical cable (for example, RS-232) at a speed of 10 characters per second (110 baud bps):
')
Teletype Model 33 ASR
Note: David Gösswein maintains an excellent PDP-8 website , where you can find more information about the ASR33 (and the corresponding PDP-8 technology), including photos, videos, etc.
The program on the computer receives the entered characters, decides what to do with them, and, perhaps, asynchronously sends a response to the teletype. TTY can print / show operator received characters.
Then the technology improved, the transfer rate increased to 19,200 bps, and noisy and expensive printers replaced CRT displays (a widespread type of display in the 80s and 90s), as on the popular DEC VT100 terminal:
Terminal DEC VT100
Although the technology has improved, but this model - the terminal sends symbols to the program on the computer, and it gives the text to the user - has remained today as the fundamental model of the interaction of all command lines and consoles on all platforms!
Terminal and command line architecture
The model is elegant in its own way. One of the reasons is to preserve the simplicity and integrity of each component: the keyboard produces symbols that are buffered as electrical signals. The output device simply displays on the display (paper / screen) characters received from the computer.
At each stage in the system, only a stream of characters is transmitted, so this is a relatively simple process for implementing various communication infrastructures. For example, to add modems to transmit streams of input and output symbols over long distances via telephone lines.
Text encoding
It is important to remember that terminals and computers exchange data through streams of characters. When you press a key on the terminal keyboard, a value representing the character entered is sent to the connected computer. Press the 'A' key and the value 65 is sent (0x41). Press 'Z' and sends 90 (0x5a).
7-bit ASCII encoding
The list of characters and their meanings is defined in the American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII) standard, which is also the ISO / IEC 646 / ECMA-6 standard - “7-bit coded character set”, which defines:
- 128 values representing printed Latin characters A – Z (65–90), a – z (97–122), 0–9 (48–57)
- Many common punctuation marks
- Several non-printing control codes (0−31 and 127):
Standard 7-bit ASCII characters
When 7 bits are not enough: code pages
However, 7 bits do not provide enough space to encode many accents, punctuation marks, and symbols used in other languages and regions. So with the addition of an extra bit, you can extend the ASCII character table with additional “code page” sets for characters 128–255 (and possibly redefining several non-printable ASCII characters).
For example, IBM introduced codepage 437 with several graphic characters like ╫ (215) and ╣ (185) and mathematical symbols, including π (227) and ± (241), and also redefined printable characters for commonly non-printing characters 1−31:
Codepage 437
The Latin-1 code page defines the set of characters used by Latin-based languages:
Latin-1 code page
In many command line environments and shells, you can change the current codepage so that the terminal displays different characters (depending on the fonts available), especially for characters with a value of 128–255. But an incorrectly specified code page will lead to the display of gibbering . And yes, “krakozyabry” is the real term ! Who would have thought? ;)
When 8 bits are not enough: Unicode
Code pages have temporarily solved the problem, but they have many shortcomings, for example, they do not allow displaying text from several code pages / languages simultaneously. Thus, we had to introduce a new encoding that accurately displays each character and alphabet for all languages known to humanity, leaving a lot of free space! Introducing Unicode .
Unicode is an international standard ( ISO / IEC 10646 ), which currently defines 137,439 characters from 146 modern and historical scripts, as well as many characters and glyphs, including numerous emoticons that are widely used in almost every application, platform, and device. Unicode is regularly updated with additional writing systems, new / corrected emoticons, symbols, etc.
Unicode also defines “non-printable” formatting characters, which allow, for example, to combine characters and / or affect previous or subsequent characters! This is especially useful in writing such as Arabic, where the ligature of a particular character is determined by others. Emoji can use a zero width joiner to combine multiple characters into one visual glyph. For example, Microsoft Emoji Ninja cat is formed by connecting the cat with other Emoji:
Emoji Cat Ninja Microsoft
When bytes are too many: UTF-8!
A unique and systematic representation of all characters requires a large amount of space, up to several bytes for each character.
Therefore, to save money, several new Unicode encodings were developed. Among the most popular are UTF-32 (4 bytes per character), UTF-16 / UCS-2 (2 bytes) and UTF-8 (1−4 bytes per character).
Largely due to backward compatibility with ASCII and saving space, UTF-8 has become the most popular Unicode encoding on the Internet. It has been showing explosive growth since 2008, when it overtook ASCII and other popular encodings in popularity:
The rise in popularity of the UTF-8 encoding (source: Wikipedia)
Thus, the terminals initially supported 7-bit and then 8-bit ANSI text, but most modern terminals support Unicode / UTF-8 text.
So, what is the command line and what is a shell?
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Source: https://habr.com/ru/post/417679/
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