Means and methods of training astronauts

Seeing a rocket soaring into the skies with astronauts on board, do you begin to think about how people become astronauts? Where do they prepare? How are flight tests? What disciplines do you take exams for? Well, the most important question: who do they take as cosmonauts?

With these and other questions related to the preparation of the first, as well as subsequent astronauts for the flight, we will try to understand this small article. To whom it is already interesting - I ask under cat.

Selection of the first astronauts

The general public first learned about the idea of ​​spaceflight as a real opportunity in the 1920s from newspaper reports by American Robert Goddard and Romanian Herman Obert. When people only began to realize the reality of the idea of ​​flying into space, KE Tsiolokovsky was already sweating in his office on a rocket project that was supposed to deliver a man into space.
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From the first reports of the 20th century in the newspapers of America to the meeting, which took place in early 1959 in the USSR, about 30 years passed. The council was attended by scientists, representatives of ministries and departments. They discussed a single strategic issue - the preparation of the first manned flight into space.

When it was decided to fly a man into space, the question immediately arose: what professions should be preferred? There were different opinions. For example, doctors, since the main task of an astronaut in the first flights was to investigate the state and reactions of his own organism. Or the engineers who took part in the creation of the spacecraft: who knows the ship better than the developers!

Sergei Pavlovich Korolev thought so:

For such a case, pilots are best prepared, and first of all, jet fighter aircraft pilots. Fighter pilot - this is the desired wagon. He is a pilot, a navigator, a signalman, and a flight engineer. It is also important that he is a professional soldier, which means that he also possesses such qualities necessary for a future astronaut as self-discipline, discipline, and unrelenting pursuit of a goal.

And he added to the joke: "He is a Swedish, a reaper, and a igrets on a dude." Practice has confirmed the correctness of this choice. Korolev formulated requirements for candidates for astronauts in this way: no older than 30 years, impeccable health, high mental stability and overall endurance of the body, excellent flight performance, strong-willed character, hard work and curiosity. Space technology of the time determined the anthropometric characteristics: height no higher than 175 cm, weight 70-72 kg.

At that time, too little was known about the effect of flight conditions on the human body, so the medical requirements for selection were particularly stringent. The first head of the Cosmonaut Training Center, E. A. Karpov, called this a superselection.

To find out the degree of tolerance of loads, the so-called functional load tests were carried out - tests in the extreme conditions for a person in a pressure chamber, in a centrifuge, etc. This made it possible to reveal hidden diseases and abnormalities that a person could not even suspect. In addition, on the basis of the obtained data, the reserve capabilities of a person, his safety margin were determined.

This is what Yuri Gagarin told about the commission that “elected” him to astronauts:

The commission was picky. The first doctor was an oculist doctor. Eyes checked very carefully. They were also looking for latent squint, checking night vision. An oculist had to appear 7 times, and each time it all started over again. Conducted to test the ability to work in complicated conditions. It was proposed to perform arithmetic operations with the numbers that should have been found in a special table. Take into account the speed and correct answers. At first glance, the solution of the problem was simple, but suddenly the loudspeaker turned on, whose voice suggested the solution, but instead of using “voice”, it made it difficult to concentrate. It was difficult. There were many doctors. They twisted us on special devices, checking the vestibular apparatus, very carefully checked the heart. In addition, psychological examinations were carried out. Pressure chambers, centrifuges were carried out more than once. Revealed what our memory, intelligence. They were interested in our outlook.

Such an “over-selection” was justified at the initial stage, since the cosmos hid a lot of unknown, probably terrible, and it was not clear whether it is possible for a person to stay there, whether it would be damaged by reason. After the flight of Yuri Alekseevich Gagarin, these fears disappeared, the technical managers of the program began to express doubt about the need for such stringent requirements, and their decline occurred surprisingly quickly. S.P. Korolev believed that “medicine” impeded the development of the program, and even allowed expressions like: “It’s time to torture people less according to the program for rabbits”.

During the development of the first Soviet spacecraft Vostok, emergency measures were taken to ensure flight safety. The ship was automatic, manual control was not provided. Therefore, a high level of piloting from the candidates for cosmonauts was not required - more attention was paid to the desire to learn, the ability to adapt in difficult conditions.

As knowledge of human well-being in space accumulated, new, more sophisticated manned vehicles were created, the system of selection and preparation changed. Requirements for personal qualities and health were not, of course, less stringent, but some extravagant tests and excessive loads were refused.

Modern training

The modern training system is different from the one that existed at the beginning, just like the first Vostok ship from the ISS.
The whole process of preparation is divided into stages: general space , in groups and direct .

General space training lasts two years. During this time, laid the foundations of the profession of an astronaut. Candidates for cosmonauts study the sciences that form the foundation of the profession. At first, they were recruited a little: rocket and space technology, the basics of space medicine, astronomy, geophysics, astronavigation. In addition, the device and principles of operation of the ship "Vostok" were studied. Conducted classes on the acquisition of skills of photographing and filming.

As the complexity of space technology and the work carried out in orbit, research and experiments, the amount of training expanded. It included sections such as information and computer systems, the basics of testing, because each space flight is a test. The astronauts, passing the 101st exam, grumbled: "Disgrace, selected for health, and ask for the mind!".

Upon completion of training, candidates for cosmonauts pass the state exam, and those who have passed it are awarded the qualification of a test cosmonaut or a cosmonaut researcher.

In the first years of manned space flight, the main emphasis was placed on biomedical training. Almost two thirds of the time was devoted to it.

Centrifuge: overload training

To simulate overloads, a special rapidly rotating centrifuge is used, which looks like a huge dumbbell, at one end of which a cabin with the subject is fixed, and at the other - a counterweight.

By the beginning of the new century, spacecraft had become more perfect and the requirements had weakened slightly. This type of training is very important: on the descent, the astronaut is exposed to overloads, which are especially noticeable after a long stay in weightlessness. In abnormal and emergency situations, overloads can be much greater.

Vestibular training

Preparing to stay in weightlessness is called vestibular exercise. This is a very unpleasant form of training. They are designed to facilitate the period of adaptation to weightlessness in the first few days of flight and make it as short as possible.
The most famous devices designed for this purpose are the Barani chair and the Khilov swing.

The test is carried out according to the following scheme: minute of rotation - minute of rest. During rotation, the astronaut must slowly lower and raise his head, as a result of the addition of these movements, Coriolis acceleration occurs, which adversely affects the vestibular apparatus, an organ that informs the brain about the position of the body in space. Nausea may occur, vomiting, excessive sweating begin. It is necessary to endure 15 rotations, and troubles often arise already on the fifth. Despite this, the doctor responds that they feel good - otherwise they recognize it as unsuitable.

The swings proposed by the prominent Soviet otolaryngologist KL Khilov, in contrast to the ordinary ones, which “fly” in an arc, move parallel to the floor. This creates linear accelerations and annoys the vestibular apparatus.
In order to more easily carry the tides of blood to the head, caused by weightlessness, they conduct training in the anti-position. The astronaut is located on a special turntable, the angle of inclination of which changes, and the subject is then lowered upside down, then returned to its original position.

Pressure chamber

During the flight, an artificial atmosphere is created on the spacecraft, the parameters of which may change noticeably in the event of any abnormal or emergency situations (for example, the oxygen content decreases or there will be a sharp pressure drop). Given this, astronauts are tested in the pressure chamber. They are “lifted to a height of” 5000 m without an oxygen mask to determine how they endure oxygen starvation. In such situations, both latent pathologies and reserve capabilities of the body are very well identified.

Heat chamber

When preparing the first manned flights, they feared a significant increase in temperature in the descent vehicle, because it flies in a plasma stream with a temperature of several thousand degrees. In addition, the thermal control system of a spacecraft or orbital station may unexpectedly fail.

The test of the cosmonauts candidate's resistance to high temperatures is carried out in a heat chamber. First, the test took place at a temperature of 70 ° C and a humidity of 10%. The doctor had the opportunity to observe the condition of the subject by the instruments and visually.

Following the test in a heat chamber, training was conducted - five “presses” under the same temperature conditions, but with increasing duration (from 30 to 70 min). In conclusion, the maximum residence time was determined.
After the first flights, fears disappeared that during descent from orbit the temperature in the ship could be very high. But the role of training in the heat chamber has not diminished, but, on the contrary, has increased: during their stay in orbit, astronauts regularly have to work in outer space.

This work requires a lot of physical stress, the human body generates a lot of heat. Of course, the spacesuit is equipped with a thermal control system, but sometimes, in order to complete the planned, astronauts have to work at the limit of the life support system's capabilities, and they may eventually refuse. Therefore, when preparing for the flight, it is very important, firstly, to know the individual thermal stability of each cosmonaut, and secondly, to prepare his body for adverse effects. Tests are carried out at a temperature of 60 ° C and a humidity of 50% for one hour.

Surdamera

Before the first flight, they especially feared for the mental stability of a person in space conditions. It was unclear how the absence of the usual "food" will affect the senses, mainly hearing and sight. It was assumed that in the ship there would be complete silence, and the black space behind the portholes would seem to be devoid of spatial depth. The existence of any more adverse, even dangerous, unpredictable factors was not excluded. This is quite a strong impact, which in itself can lead to mental disorders even in terrestrial conditions. In space flight, its negative effect is enhanced due to weightlessness. Being in a closed room with the awareness of complete isolation from the Earth is also a serious mental burden, aggravated by the constant expectation of danger.

The stability of the human psyche to such effects is checked in the isolation chamber (from Lat. Surdus - "deaf") - a special soundproof room, with poor artificial lighting and soundproof walls for observing the astronaut.

Training on simulators and stands

Training programs for pilots and astronauts are in many ways close, but there are significant differences. The pilot, after completing the theoretical course and training on ground simulators, performs training flights with an instructor, then control flights, and only after that he is completely trusted by the aircraft. The first independent flight is a big event in a professional biography of a pilot.

It is impossible to build a cosmonaut training in the same way, and his first flight is independent. Only technical means of training astronauts, that is, various stands and simulators, provide an opportunity to acquire the necessary skills.

Now the sciences studying the problems of human activity as part of man-machine systems widely operate with the concept of “image of flight”. On its basis, the learning process.

This concept includes knowledge of the real situation, the range of possible actions, the properties of the object and the tasks of controlling it, the consequences of correct and erroneous actions and much more, and in conditions that vary over a wide range.

On the simulators, the “image of flight” is formed, as close as possible to the real situation, which requires the response of the cosmonaut. The interior of the cabin is almost identical to the present, even the view in the porthole, the noises of working devices and units, a number of dynamic processes are simulated. It is most difficult to reproduce, on the ground, certain physical features of space flight, in particular weightlessness, and also to provoke stressful situations.

The technical means used in the preparation process can be divided into two groups. The first group consists of stands and devices on which various factors of space flight are simulated (overloads, weightlessness, reduced pressure, etc.). They have a common name - " exogenous simulators ". These include aircraft laboratories, hydro laboratories, surrogate chambers, pressure chambers, as well as various gymnastic equipment: a trampoline, a loping, etc. ship using the orientation of the Sun, Earth, stars, planets and data of terrestrial services, search, convergence, docking and undocking, descent from orbit, the implementation of special tasks.

Learn to control the ship "in parts"

The first space simulator was designed to work out actions to control the ships of the Vostok series, then it was remade to prepare astronauts for flights on the Rises. The next step was the creation of an integrated simulator for the crews of the "Unions" and a specialized simulator to perform the rendezvous operation. This proved to be a difficult task, since the ship was a qualitatively new manned vehicle with significantly improved onboard systems. Very often, their models exceeded their real prototypes in complexity.

The expansion of the scientific program required the creation of new modeling stands. Then they combined the simulators and stands into a common simulator-modeling complex based on collectively used systems (computational, information, etc.). Such a construction of technical means ensured the simultaneous operation of many used devices and significantly reduced the preparation time.

Training begins with the study of the cabin interior, the placement of controls, media. A logical sequence of actions is worked out when solving various tasks. Then, at various stands and simulators, astronauts acquire skills in performing individual operations.

The next stage is working out on the stands and simulators of all operations as a whole in normal flight mode. Only after the skills have been consolidated, they begin to complicate the conditions, in particular those arising in abnormal and emergency situations.
Training can be carried out both in real time and in slow motion, if it is necessary to work out the skills of managing fast processes, or at an accelerated pace - to reduce the time.

Manage the whole complex

One of the main means of training and crew training is a complex simulator. On it, astronauts are taught how to work with on-board systems, methods of detecting and rectifying malfunctions, interacting with ground control points, and working out methods of manual control of the ship.

The control computer allows you to simulate many options for abnormal situations. Developing actions in abnormal and emergency situations is very important and takes a significant part of the time. There is a simulator simulating an orbital station.

As a result, the entire crew passes the state exam, the results of which decide the issue of admission to flight.

The exam is taken by the State Commission, which consists of leading specialists from the Training Center and enterprises producing space equipment. The process of passing the exam of the State Commission is no different from training in the complexity and conditions of the exercise.

Preparation for work in open space

Preparing astronauts for work in open space is probably the most difficult. After all, on Earth it is almost impossible to create a long - more than several tens of seconds - weightlessness. There are many ways to imitate it. All of them are imperfect, but they are used for working off individual operations related to a spacewalk.

The “purest” weightlessness arises in an airplane when flying along a parabolic trajectory. Initially, the trainings were carried out on the MiG-15 fighter - during one flight the plane made three or four slides, during each of which the state of weightlessness lasted about 40 s. The tasks were not difficult: on one hill the so-called first attempt at writing was to write a name, a surname, a date, and put a signature. Then this sample was compared with the pre-flight one, in order to reveal possible violations of the fine coordination of movements. On another slide, it was proposed to try cosmic food from a tuba, on the third - to transmit a given phrase by radio. Later they created a flying laboratory based on the Tu-104, and now in its cabin you can freely “swim” and work out the elements of the flight task.



The most effective way to simulate weightlessness is to create hydrone-weightlessness. Although weightlessness in hydro-environment is very different from its prototype in orbit, the tester can stay in it almost indefinitely and freely move in any direction. All operations are processed in real time.

In 1965, a hydro-basin was built at the Cosmonauts Training Center and a hydrolaboratory was created - a complex structure with a whole set of technological equipment, special systems, equipment and mechanisms. The suits used for training are almost the same as regular ones. The satchel of the life support system is simulated by a model whose dimensions correspond to the real ones.

Breathing air and water for the thermal control system is supplied through the hoses. Underwater work is usually associated with a certain danger, so scuba divers insure astronauts and testers. Emotional stress and energy consumption of hydro-environment training are close to real conditions of space flight.

Flight and parachute training

An important role in the development of an astronaut as a professional is played by flight and parachute training. The first program includes flights on modern fighters and heavy transport aircraft. At the same time, mastering the technique of piloting is not the goal, but the means of forming the corresponding qualities. Flights on airplanes develop spatial orientation and the ability to make decisions under time pressure; strengthen skills in working with controls and instruments; they train attention, switchability and stability in the performance of monotonous work, develop the ability to simultaneously solve several problems related to control, etc.

And although the pilots do not like to jump with a parachute, only parachute training allows you to simulate a real stressful environment, to develop moral and volitional qualities. The astronaut is given a variety of tasks that he must perform in the conditions of time deficiency during a free fall and after the parachute opens. In addition, you need to keep a report, it is recorded on a tape recorder and then analyzed to determine the emotional stress of a parachutist.

The most psychologically difficult task is to determine or calculate (by doing some arithmetic operations) the time of the parachute opening, based on the signs laid out on the ground, since this is associated with a real risk. Of course, if the parachutist does not open the parachute on time, an automatic machine will do it. The person performing the exercises is in a state as close as possible to the stressful one that occurs in an emergency situation on a spacecraft with a shortage of time to get out of it.

Survival tests

The content of “survival tests” is changing, all sorts of elements of surprise are introduced, but the essence remains the same - preparation for overcoming any difficulties and surprises, psychological and physical hardening.

Such trainings are held in the taiga, in the desert, in the mountains, at sea. For example, they are planted from a helicopter on a sandy dune heated by the ruthless sun. The task is to survive, to get to the camp of doctors and examiners with minimal equipment, with a very small supply. It is especially important to be able to properly distribute the force, the water supply. Be able to protect yourself from heat and sandstorms.

Conclusion

The selection of astronauts is a continuous process that occurs at all stages of preparation, during the entire time spent in the detachment. Even after going through a hard initial screening, it is very difficult to master the necessary skills and develop the appropriate personal qualities.

All types of training, all technical means used for this, all the efforts of a large team of the Yuri Gagarin Cosmonaut Training Center , mutually complementing each other, are aimed at preparing the person to perform very complex and a very important mission - to fly into space, work in near-earth orbit.

References

• ., – , , ., « », 1975
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• www.federalspace.ru – ;
• www.zvezdniygorodok.ru — ;
• www.gctc.ru — ;
• www.school51penza.narod.ru/index.htm — . ;